Ethics: the BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct (2009) and risk management

The four principles

The Code is built on four ethical principles:

• Respect: for the dignity and worth of every person. Covers informed consent, privacy and confidentiality, and self-determination (the right to withdraw, including having data destroyed). Deception is allowed only in exceptional circumstances, with safeguards, and must be revealed as soon as possible.
• Competence: working within the limits of one's knowledge, skills and training, and making ethical decisions carefully.
• Responsibility: to participants, the public and the profession. Covers protection of research participants from physical and psychological harm, and debriefing.
• Integrity: honesty, accuracy, clarity and fairness, including avoiding exploitation and conflicts of interest.

Key issues in practice

• Informed consent: participants know what is involved before agreeing; under-16s need consent from a parent or carer.
• Deception: avoid if possible; if needed, debrief fully.
• Right to withdraw: at any time, including withdrawing their data later.
• Confidentiality and anonymity: no names published; use numbers or initials.
• Debriefing: explain the true aim, answer questions and check for harm.
• Protection from harm: no greater risk than in everyday life.

Risk management

The Code asks researchers to weigh costs, risks and benefits and to:

• ask participants at the start about individual factors that might put them at risk of harm
• avoid payments or incentives that encourage people to take risks they normally would not
• get approval from independent advisors (an ethics committee) where harm is likely
• be mindful of risks to themselves as researchers.

Burger (2009) is a good example: he screened out vulnerable people with a clinical psychologist and stopped at 150 V to protect participants.

Applying ethics to studies

Milgram (1963): deception (the shocks were fake), distress and prods that made withdrawal hard broke Respect and Responsibility, though he debriefed participants. Asch and Moscovici used deception about the aim. Case studies of brain-damaged patients such as HM raise issues of consent and confidentiality, which is why HM was known only by initials during his life.

Worked example

Explain two ways Burger (2009) managed risk in his replication of Milgram.

1. Screening: a clinical psychologist interviewed volunteers and excluded those who might react badly (38.2% at the second step).
2. Stopping at 150 V, so participants never faced the most stressful part.
3. Also: participants were told the $50 was theirs to keep even if they withdrew.

Answer: He screened out vulnerable participants and stopped the procedure at 150 V (and made clear the $50 was theirs even if they withdrew).

Check yourself

1. Under which BPS principle does 'protection of research participants' and 'debriefing' fall?
   • Respect
   • Responsibility
   • Competence
   • Integrity
   Show answer

   Responsibility. The Code lists these standards under Responsibility.

2. Informed consent and the right to withdraw come under which BPS principle?
   • Competence
   • Integrity
   • Responsibility
   • Respect
   Show answer

   Respect. They respect the person's dignity and self-determination.

3. Who must give consent for a 14-year-old to take part in a study?
   • Only the child
   • A parent or carer, as well as the child agreeing
   • Only the head teacher
   • No consent is needed for questionnaires
   Show answer

   A parent or carer, as well as the child agreeing. Under-16s need parental or carer consent.

4. Which is an example of risk management in research?
   • Paying participants a large amount to stay in a stressful study
   • Using deception without a debrief
   • Asking participants at the start about factors that could put them at risk of harm
   • Publishing participants' names
   Show answer

   Asking participants at the start about factors that could put them at risk of harm. The Code asks researchers to identify individual risk factors from first contact.

5. A researcher reports only the results that support her hypothesis. Which principle does this breach?
   • Integrity
   • Respect
   • Competence
   • Responsibility
   Show answer

   Integrity. Integrity requires honesty and accuracy in reporting.

6. What should happen in a debrief?
   Show answer

   The researcher explains the true aim of the study, reveals any deception, answers questions, reminds participants they can withdraw their data, and checks they have not been harmed.. A debrief explains the study and checks for harm.

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Sources

• Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidiary/Advanced Level in Psychology specification (issue January 2026)
• Pearson International A Level Psychology component guide: WPS01
• British Psychological Society: Code of Ethics and Conduct (August 2009)
• Burger (2009) Replicating Milgram: Would people still obey today? American Psychologist 64(1) (full text)
• IAL Psychology revision site: Ethics

Last updated 8 November 2026. Spotted a mistake? Tell us.