Reconstructive memory and schema theory (Bartlett, 1932)

Reconstructive memory

• Memory is active and imaginative, not a faithful replay. We store fragments and fill the gaps when we recall.
• What we remember is shaped by our expectations, culture and prior knowledge.
• Each recall can change the memory a little more.

This was neglected for decades, then revived by eyewitness research such as Loftus's work showing memories can be altered by misleading information.

Schema theory

A schema is a mental framework of knowledge and expectations about an object, event or situation built up from experience (for example, a schema for a restaurant visit).

Schemas affect memory at:

• Encoding: they help us make sense of new or ambiguous information.
• Retrieval: they fill gaps with what usually happens (confabulation) and push details that do not fit towards ones that do.

Bartlett's War of the Ghosts study showed these effects: omission, transformation to familiar things (canoes became boats), rationalisation (explaining away the strange parts) and shortening. Levelling drops details and sharpening exaggerates others.

Evaluation

Strengths: supported by Bartlett (1932) and later studies such as Bransford and Johnson (1972), who showed schemas help people understand and recall ambiguous passages; Sacchi et al. (2007) found doctored photos changed memories of public events; important applications to eyewitness testimony in court.

Weaknesses: Bartlett's methods lacked standardised controls (participants recalled whenever convenient) and scoring was subjective; schemas are hard to observe and measure directly; the theory explains errors better than the many times memory is accurate.

Worked example

A witness to a bank robbery recalls the robber wearing a mask and carrying a gun, although neither was present. Explain this using schema theory.

1. The witness has a 'bank robber' schema built from films and news.
2. At retrieval, gaps in memory are filled with schema-consistent details.
3. So expected details (mask, gun) are added: confabulation.

Answer: Her robbery schema filled gaps at recall with expected details: reconstruction and confabulation.

Check yourself

1. What is a schema?
   • A mental framework of knowledge and expectations built from experience
   • A short-term memory store
   • A type of brain damage
   • A statistical test
   Show answer

   A mental framework of knowledge and expectations built from experience. Schemas organise what we know about the world.

2. In War of the Ghosts, 'canoes' became 'boats'. This is an example of
   • perfect recall
   • rehearsal
   • transformation to something more familiar
   • articulatory suppression
   Show answer

   transformation to something more familiar. Unfamiliar items were changed to familiar ones from the participants' culture.

3. Filling a gap in memory with a detail that fits our expectations is called
   • confabulation
   • chunking
   • counterbalancing
   • compliance
   Show answer

   confabulation. Confabulation fills gaps with plausible, schema-based details.

4. Participants left out the ghosts and described an ordinary fight between tribes. This is
   • the word length effect
   • the recency effect
   • informational social influence
   • rationalisation
   Show answer

   rationalisation. Strange elements were explained away to make sense.

5. What is a weakness of Bartlett's research?
   • It used too many participants
   • Recall was not standardised and scoring changes was subjective
   • It was a field experiment with high control
   • It used nonsense syllables
   Show answer

   Recall was not standardised and scoring changes was subjective. Lack of control and subjective scoring reduce reliability.

6. Explain how schemas can make memory less accurate at retrieval.
   Show answer

   At retrieval we fill gaps with what our schema says usually happens, so details are added or changed to fit our expectations and the memory becomes distorted.. Schemas fill gaps and alter details to fit expectations.

Practise with instant feedback Print this lesson

Sources

• Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidiary/Advanced Level in Psychology specification (issue January 2026)
• Pearson International A Level Psychology component guide: WPS01
• IAL Psychology revision site: Reconstructive memory
• IAL Psychology revision site: Bartlett (1932)

Last updated 8 November 2026. Spotted a mistake? Tell us.