Optional contemporary study: Sacchi et al. (2007)

Aim and materials

Aim: to see whether doctored photographs of well-known public events change people's memories of the events, their attitudes towards them and their intended behaviour.

Materials: two famous photos and doctored versions:

• Beijing (Tiananmen Square, 1989): a man standing in front of tanks; the doctored version added crowds on both sides.
• Rome (2003): a peaceful protest march near the Colosseum; the doctored version added police and aggressive-looking protesters.

Eight independent judges rated the doctored Rome photo as more violent.

Procedure (Study 1)

Participants: 187 Italian undergraduates (31 male, 156 female), aged 19 to 39 (mean 22.3), from Padua and Udine universities.

Each saw one of four combinations: both original (N = 48), both doctored (N = 44), doctored Beijing with original Rome (N = 43), original Beijing with doctored Rome (N = 52).

They filled in a questionnaire in class: named the event in each photo, saw a photo again with a caption, answered questions about familiarity, then answered memory questions (for example, estimates of how many people took part, whether there was violence) and attitude ratings without looking back at the photo. Then they were debriefed and shown both versions.

Results and conclusions

• Beijing: those who saw the doctored photo estimated more people took part and more were near the tanks.
• Rome: those who saw the doctored photo were more likely to recall physical confrontation, property damage and injuries (injuries: 67% said yes against 34% for the original photo), and rated the protest as more violent and negative.
• Study 2: 112 older adults (aged 50 to 84, mean 64.9); those who saw the doctored Rome photo said they were less likely to join a similar protest.

Conclusion: doctored images can change memory for public events, attitudes and behavioural intentions, in young and older adults alike; memories are reconstructed using misleading information.

Evaluation

Strengths: real, well-known photos (realistic stimuli); counterbalanced and randomised photo combinations; two studies with different age groups increase generalisability across ages; full debrief.

Weaknesses: Study 1 was mostly female undergraduates; self-report answers may be affected by social desirability; deception about doctored photos raises ethical questions; Italian samples only.

Worked example

In the Rome injury question, 67% of the doctored group and 34% of the original group said 'yes'. Calculate the difference and explain what it shows.

1. 67 - 34 = 33 percentage points.
2. Seeing added police and aggressive protesters led people to 'remember' injuries.
3. This supports reconstructive memory: the misleading image was built into the memory.

Answer: A 33 percentage point difference: the doctored photo altered memory of the event.

Check yourself

1. In Study 1 the four groups had 48, 44, 43 and 52 participants. How many participants were there altogether?
   Show answer

   187. 48 + 44 + 43 + 52 = 187.

2. 156 of the 187 participants in Study 1 were female. What percentage is that? Give your answer to 1 decimal place.
   Show answer

   83.4 %. 156 / 187 x 100 = 83.4%.

3. What was added to the doctored Rome photo?
   • Crowds on either side of the tanks
   • Police and aggressive-looking protesters
   • The Colosseum
   • A man standing in front of a tank
   Show answer

   Police and aggressive-looking protesters. The doctored version made a peaceful march look violent.

4. How did the doctored Beijing photo affect memory?
   • People forgot the tanks
   • People rated it as more peaceful
   • People estimated that more people had taken part
   • It had no effect on any answers
   Show answer

   People estimated that more people had taken part. The added crowds increased estimates of numbers.

5. What did Study 2 add?
   • Older adults who saw the doctored Rome photo said they were less likely to join a similar protest
   • Children were tested on the same photos
   • The photos were shown in colour
   • Participants were interviewed about Bartlett's story
   Show answer

   Older adults who saw the doctored Rome photo said they were less likely to join a similar protest. It showed effects on behavioural intention in people aged 50 to 84.

6. Give one weakness of Sacchi et al. (2007).
   Show answer

   Most participants in Study 1 were female undergraduates, so the findings may not generalise to men or the wider population.. Sample bias, self-report and deception are the main criticisms.

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Sources

• Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidiary/Advanced Level in Psychology specification (issue January 2026)
• Pearson International A Level Psychology component guide: WPS01
• UC Irvine news: Researchers find memory can be manipulated by photos (2007)
• IAL Psychology revision site: Sacchi et al. (2007)

Last updated 8 November 2026. Spotted a mistake? Tell us.