Contemporary study: Cassibba et al. (2013)

Aims and procedure

Aims: to see whether Italian attachment distributions match the global pattern; whether most Italian infants and adults are secure; whether Italian samples have fewer unresolved classifications (which the authors linked to Catholicism); whether clinical or at-risk groups differ from the norm; and whether there are gender differences.

Procedure: a systematic search (1990 to 2009) of PsycINFO for Italian studies using the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) for infants and the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) for adolescents and adults. Unpublished work (dissertations, conference papers) was included to reduce publication bias, but only if a coder was reliable or inter-rater reliability was high.

Sample: 17 SSP studies (23 samples, 627 children) and 50 AAI studies (72 samples, 2,258 participants), compared with North American norms.

Results

SSP results (Pearson WPS03 summary of studies)

Adult results and conclusions

• Adults (AAI): mothers 22% dismissing, 59% free/autonomous (secure), 19% entangled; fathers 35%, 46% and 19%. The three-way distribution did not differ significantly from the norm, but only 10% were unresolved, an under-representation.
• Non-clinical adolescents: only 4% unresolved, against a North American norm of 18%.
• Conclusions: 53% of non-clinical infants and about 60% of non-clinical adults were secure, remarkably similar to American norms. Italian infants were more avoidant; the authors suggested Italian mothers see development as a natural process, while American mothers see promoting it as their job. The low unresolved rate might reflect Catholic values, but religion was not measured. No gender differences in adult attachment were found.
• Overall: universal trends plus culture-specific features.

Evaluation

• Strengths: large combined samples; includes unpublished work, reducing publication bias; uses standard, reliable tools (SSP, AAI); compares like with like within one country, controlling for country-level differences.
• Weaknesses: explanations (Catholicism, maternal beliefs) are interpretations, not tested; studies used different coders and years, so data quality varies; North American norms may not be the right baseline (imposed etic); meta-analysis can only be as good as the studies it includes.

Worked example

Compare secure attachment in Italian non-clinical children (53%) and clinical or at-risk children (32%).

1. Difference = 53 - 32 = 21 percentage points.
2. At-risk children were much less often secure and more often resistant (28% versus 14%).
3. This supports the idea that risk factors such as maternal difficulties affect attachment.

Answer: 21 percentage points fewer secure in the clinical or at-risk group.

Check yourself

1. Which two measures were used in the studies Cassibba et al. analysed?
   • Brain scans and questionnaires
   • The Strange Situation and IQ tests
   • The Strange Situation Procedure and the Adult Attachment Interview
   • Diaries and focus groups
   Show answer

   The Strange Situation Procedure and the Adult Attachment Interview. SSP for infants, AAI for adults.

2. Cassibba et al. analysed 627 SSP participants and 2,258 AAI participants. How many participants is that in total?
   Show answer

   2885. 627 + 2,258 = 2,885.

3. How did Italian non-clinical infants differ from the US norm?
   • They were more resistant
   • They were all secure
   • They were more avoidant
   • They were more disorganised
   Show answer

   They were more avoidant. 33% avoidant.

4. Why did Cassibba et al. include unpublished studies?
   • Because published studies were too old
   • To reduce publication bias
   • To increase the number of countries
   • Because unpublished studies are always more accurate
   Show answer

   To reduce publication bias. Studies with no effect are less likely to be published.

5. Why is the Catholicism explanation weak?
   • Italy has no Catholics
   • Unresolved attachment was over-represented
   • It was tested and rejected
   • Religion was never measured in the studies
   Show answer

   Religion was never measured in the studies. It is an untested interpretation.

6. Unresolved non-clinical Italian adolescents were 4%, against a North American norm of 18%. How many percentage points lower is that?
   Show answer

   14 percentage points. 18 - 4 = 14.

7. State the overall conclusion of Cassibba et al. (2013).
   Show answer

   Italian attachment patterns showed universal trends, with most infants and adults secure like American norms, but also culture-specific features, including more avoidant attachment and fewer unresolved classifications.. Similarities plus differences.

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Sources

• Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidiary/Advanced Level in Psychology specification, Issue 6 (November 2024, first assessment January 2026)
• Pearson IAL Psychology summary of studies: WPS03

Last updated 8 November 2026. Spotted a mistake? Tell us.