Criminological psychology (option): self-fulfilling prophecy and social learning from the media

Crime and antisocial behaviour

• Crime: behaviour that breaks the criminal law and can be punished by the state (for example, theft, assault).
• Antisocial behaviour: behaviour that causes harassment, alarm or distress to others and goes against social norms, whether or not it is illegal (for example, vandalism, intimidation, noisy and threatening behaviour).

Both vary by culture and over time, which makes them hard to define and measure.

The self-fulfilling prophecy

A self-fulfilling prophecy (SFP) happens when a false belief or expectation about someone leads them to behave in a way that makes the belief come true.

1. Others (teachers, police, parents, media) form an expectation or label, for example 'trouble-maker', often from stereotypes about class, area or appearance.

2. They treat the person in line with the label (closer surveillance, less trust, harsher responses).

3. The person internalises the label and changes their self-concept.

4. They behave in line with it, confirming the original expectation.

Evidence: Madon et al. (2004) followed 115 parents and their seventh-grade children for 12 months. Parents' beliefs about their child's drinking predicted increases in the child's later alcohol use beyond other risk factors, especially when both parents overestimated it.

Evaluation: explains why labelled groups may be over-represented in crime statistics and has practical application (avoid labelling young people); but it cannot explain first offences before any label, labels do not always stick (people can resist), and much evidence is correlational or comes from non-criminal behaviour.

Social learning from the media

Social learning theory (Bandura; see Unit 2) says behaviour is learned by observing and imitating models, through attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Media (films, TV, games, social media, news) provide many models of crime and aggression.

• Vicarious reinforcement: if a media criminal is rewarded (money, status) and not punished, viewers are more likely to imitate.
• Identification: viewers imitate models they identify with (similar age, gender, admired characters).
• Desensitisation: repeated exposure may reduce emotional reactions to violence.
• Media may also teach techniques of crime (copycat crimes).

Evaluation: supported by laboratory studies of imitation (Bandura's Bobo doll studies); offers practical applications (age ratings). But lab aggression (hitting a doll) is not real crime (low validity); most viewers of violent media do not offend; people who are already aggressive may choose violent media (direction of causality); real-world studies are correlational; Prot et al. (2014) also show media can teach prosocial behaviour.

Exam tip

Examiners reward answers that apply social learning theory to the media and to the scenario: name the model, the behaviour observed, the reinforcement seen and why the observer identifies with the model. Describing the theory without the media link earns few marks.

Worked example

Ravi, 14, watches a series where a teenage gang leader gains money and respect from stealing cars. Ravi later joins friends stealing a car. Explain using social learning theory.

1. **Model**: the gang leader, someone Ravi **identifies** with (similar age, admired status).
2. **Vicarious reinforcement**: the model is rewarded with money and respect, so Ravi expects rewards too.
3. Attention and retention of the behaviour, plus motivation from expected reward, lead to **reproduction**: stealing a car.

Answer: Imitation of an identified, vicariously reinforced media model.

Check yourself

1. Which is the correct order of a self-fulfilling prophecy?
   • Behaviour, punishment, expectation, label
   • Treatment, behaviour, expectation, internalisation
   • Expectation, treatment in line with it, internalisation, confirming behaviour
   • Internalisation, expectation, treatment, behaviour
   Show answer

   Expectation, treatment in line with it, internalisation, confirming behaviour. The expectation comes first and is confirmed last.

2. Which best defines antisocial behaviour?
   • Behaviour that causes harassment, alarm or distress and goes against social norms
   • Only behaviour that breaks the criminal law
   • Any behaviour done alone
   • Behaviour that harms only the person doing it
   Show answer

   Behaviour that causes harassment, alarm or distress and goes against social norms. It need not be illegal.

3. Madon et al. (2004) followed 115 parents and children for how many months?
   Show answer

   12. Twelve months later, children reported their recent drinking.

4. Madon et al. (2004) found the self-fulfilling effect on children's drinking was strongest when
   • neither parent had any belief
   • the mother and the father each overestimated the child's drinking
   • the child never drank
   • parents underestimated the child's drinking
   Show answer

   the mother and the father each overestimated the child's drinking. A synergistic effect of both parents' negative beliefs.

5. Seeing a film character rewarded for theft makes a viewer more likely to steal. This is
   • positive punishment
   • a self-fulfilling prophecy
   • classical conditioning
   • vicarious reinforcement
   Show answer

   vicarious reinforcement. Reinforcement experienced by the model.

6. Which criticism questions the direction of cause in media research?
   • Media can teach prosocial behaviour
   • Aggressive people may choose violent media, rather than media causing aggression
   • Laboratory studies use Bobo dolls
   • Age ratings exist
   Show answer

   Aggressive people may choose violent media, rather than media causing aggression. Reverse causality.

7. Using social learning theory, explain how the media may lead to criminal behaviour.
   Show answer

   People observe criminal models in the media; if the model is rewarded (vicarious reinforcement) and the viewer identifies with them, the viewer pays attention, retains the behaviour and is motivated to imitate it.. Observation of a model plus a mechanism.

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Sources

• Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidiary/Advanced Level in Psychology specification, Issue 6 (November 2024, first assessment January 2026)
• Madon, Guyll, Spoth and Willard (2004), Self-fulfilling prophecies: the synergistic accumulative effect of parents' beliefs on children's drinking behavior, Psychological Science 15 (PubMed)
• Pearson WPS03/01 examiners' report, January 2025

Last updated 8 November 2026. Spotted a mistake? Tell us.