Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

Key ideas

• Development continues across the whole lifespan, not just childhood.
• Epigenetic principle: the stages unfold in a fixed order, each building on how the previous one was resolved.
• At each stage there is a psychosocial crisis between a healthy and an unhealthy outcome. Resolving it well gives a virtue (basic strength); poor resolution leaves difficulties that can affect later stages.
• The focus is on social relationships (psychosocial), unlike Freud's focus on sexual drives (psychosexual).

The eight stages

Erikson's stages (Simply Psychology)

Evaluation

• Strengths: covers the whole lifespan; intuitive and useful for teachers and carers (for example, giving toddlers safe choices supports autonomy); some longitudinal support, such as identity status in adolescence predicting adult identity.
• Weaknesses: vague about what experiences resolve each crisis (Erikson called it descriptive), so it is hard to test and subjective; fixed ages may not fit everyone, and crises can recur; developed mainly from White, middle-class Western families, so culture bias (assumes individualist goals such as personal identity); Gilligan argued it fits male development better (gender bias), since for many women identity and intimacy develop together.

Worked example

A 15-year-old keeps changing friendship groups, styles and plans for the future. Use Erikson to explain this.

1. At 12 to 18, the crisis is **identity versus role confusion**.
2. Trying out roles is how the adolescent explores who they are.
3. Successful resolution gives the virtue **fidelity** and a stable identity; failure leaves role confusion.

Answer: Identity versus role confusion: role experimentation in stage 5.

Check yourself

1. The crisis in Erikson's first stage is
   • identity versus role confusion
   • industry versus inferiority
   • trust versus mistrust
   • autonomy versus shame and doubt
   Show answer

   trust versus mistrust. Birth to about 18 months: can the world be trusted?

2. A 9-year-old who feels proud of finishing school projects is resolving which crisis well?
   • Industry versus inferiority
   • Initiative versus guilt
   • Trust versus mistrust
   • Intimacy versus isolation
   Show answer

   Industry versus inferiority. Ages 5 to 12: competence at tasks.

3. Which virtue comes from resolving identity versus role confusion?
   • Hope
   • Wisdom
   • Fidelity
   • Care
   Show answer

   Fidelity. Stage 5 gives fidelity.

4. Generativity versus stagnation is about
   • forming a romantic partnership
   • contributing to the next generation through work, parenting or community
   • trusting caregivers
   • developing a sense of self in adolescence
   Show answer

   contributing to the next generation through work, parenting or community. Stage 7, about 40 to 65.

5. The epigenetic principle means
   • genes fully determine personality
   • stages can be done in any order
   • only childhood matters
   • stages unfold in a fixed order, each building on the last
   Show answer

   stages unfold in a fixed order, each building on the last. Fixed sequence.

6. How many of Erikson's stages begin after the age of 18?
   Show answer

   3. Intimacy (18 to 40), generativity (40 to 65) and integrity (65+).

7. Explain why Erikson's theory may be culturally biased.
   Show answer

   It was based mainly on Western, middle-class families and assumes individualist goals such as forming a personal identity, which may not apply in collectivist cultures where identity is tied to the group.. Origin of the theory plus who it may not fit.

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Sources

• Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidiary/Advanced Level in Psychology specification, Issue 6 (November 2024, first assessment January 2026)
• OpenStax Psychology: 9.2 Lifespan theories (Erikson)

Last updated 8 November 2026. Spotted a mistake? Tell us.