Criminological psychology (option): psychological formulation of offending

What formulation is

A psychological formulation is a structured, collaborative explanation of a person's problems: how they developed, why they happen now and why they continue. It is a working hypothesis, revised as new information appears.

Process: assessment (interviews with the offender, files, family and other agencies) then analysis of patterns, then hypotheses about causes and maintaining factors, then testing and updating.

The Ps model

A common structure is the four Ps (with the presenting problem sometimes called a fifth P):

• Presenting problem: the offending behaviour (for example, repeated violent assaults).
• Predisposing factors: why the person was vulnerable (childhood abuse, insecure attachment, impulsivity).
• Precipitating factors: what triggered it now (losing a job, an argument, drinking).
• Perpetuating factors: what keeps it going (anger reduces tension, peer approval, beliefs that violence earns respect).
• Protective factors: strengths to build on (supportive family, motivation to change).

The function of offending is what it achieves for the person: for example, violence may release tension, gain status or protect against feeling threatened, linked to past trauma.

Why use it, and evaluation

Uses: understanding the individual (not just the crime category); guiding treatment, such as CBT targeting perpetuating beliefs; assessing and managing risk; tracking change.

Evaluation:

• Strengths: individualised and holistic (biological, psychological and social factors); collaborative, which can increase engagement; flexible and can be updated.
• Weaknesses: quality depends heavily on the psychologist's skill, and two psychologists may produce different formulations (low reliability, subjectivity); relies on offenders' honesty and memory; time-consuming; little outcome evidence that formulation-led treatment works better; labels in reports can follow a person for years.

Worked example

Karim, 19, has repeatedly assaulted people when drunk. He was physically punished as a child, recently split from his partner, and his friends praise him for 'standing up for himself'. Construct a brief formulation.

1. **Presenting**: repeated assaults when drunk.
2. **Predisposing**: harsh physical punishment in childhood (learned that violence solves problems).
3. **Precipitating**: the break-up and drinking.
4. **Perpetuating**: praise from friends reinforces violence; anger release.
5. **Protective**: (to explore) any supportive family or goals; the function of violence may be to regain status and manage hurt.

Answer: A 4 Ps formulation pointing treatment at alcohol, anger and peer reinforcement.

Check yourself

1. An offender's childhood neglect is which type of factor in a formulation?
   • Precipitating
   • Predisposing
   • Perpetuating
   • Protective
   Show answer

   Predisposing. Background vulnerability.

2. Losing a job just before a burglary is a
   • predisposing factor
   • protective factor
   • presenting problem
   • precipitating factor
   Show answer

   precipitating factor. The trigger.

3. Friends praising an offender for fighting is a
   • predisposing factor
   • perpetuating factor
   • protective factor
   • precipitating factor
   Show answer

   perpetuating factor. It keeps the behaviour going.

4. The 'function' of offending in a formulation means
   • the legal category of the crime
   • the length of sentence
   • what the behaviour achieves for the individual
   • the number of victims
   Show answer

   what the behaviour achieves for the individual. For example, releasing tension or gaining status.

5. Which is a weakness of formulation?
   • Different psychologists may produce different formulations for the same person
   • It cannot be changed once written
   • It ignores the individual
   • It is only a list of crimes
   Show answer

   Different psychologists may produce different formulations for the same person. Reliability depends on the practitioner.

6. Explain one reason a psychologist would develop a formulation for a prisoner.
   Show answer

   It explains why this individual offends, including what the offending does for them, so treatment such as CBT can target the specific causes and perpetuating factors and reduce risk.. Understanding plus what it is used for.

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Sources

• Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidiary/Advanced Level in Psychology specification, Issue 6 (November 2024, first assessment January 2026)
• Centre for Youth and Criminal Justice, Info sheet 69: Case formulation
• British Psychological Society, Division of Clinical Psychology: Good practice guidelines on the use of psychological formulation (2011)

Last updated 8 November 2026. Spotted a mistake? Tell us.