Population and resources: Malthus, Boserup and the Club of Rome

Theories

• Malthus (1798): population grows geometrically (1, 2, 4, 8) while food supply grows arithmetically (1, 2, 3, 4), so population eventually outstrips food, and 'checks' such as famine, disease and war reduce it. A pessimistic view.
• Boserup (1965): her view is often summarised as 'necessity is the mother of invention'. Population pressure drives people to farm more intensively and develop new technology, so food supply rises to meet demand. An optimistic view.
• Club of Rome, The Limits to Growth (1972): a team at MIT used a global computer model of five factors and concluded that the resource base probably cannot sustain current economic and population growth much beyond 2100, even with advanced technology, but that forward-looking policy could prevent overshoot (Club of Rome).

Resource pressures and technology

Rising population and affluence increase demand for:

• water (farming, industry, cities)
• food, especially meat, which needs much more land and water
• energy for transport, industry and homes.

Technology may ease shortages: high-yield and genetically modified crops, irrigation efficiency, desalination, renewable energy, recycling. Critics note that technology can bring new problems (pollution, soil damage) and is unequally available. In June 2025 candidates used Malthus and Boserup well when explaining uncertainty in population projections.

Worked example

Using Malthus's model, compare population (geometric: 1, 2, 4, 8, ...) and food (arithmetic: 1, 2, 3, 4, ...) at the 6th time interval.

1. Population at the 6th interval: 2 to the power 5 = 32.
2. Food at the 6th interval: 6.
3. Ratio = 32 / 6

Answer: Population is about 5.3 times the food supply.

Check yourself

1. In Malthus's model population follows 1, 2, 4, 8 ... and food 1, 2, 3, 4 .... At the 5th interval, how many times larger is population than food? Give your answer to 1 decimal place.
   Show answer

   3.2. Population 16, food 5: 16 / 5 = 3.2.

2. Which statement summarises Boserup's view?
   • Population will always be checked by famine
   • Population pressure stimulates new farming methods and technology
   • Resources will run out by 2100 whatever we do
   • Population has no effect on food
   Show answer

   Population pressure stimulates new farming methods and technology. Necessity is the mother of invention.

3. The Limits to Growth (1972) was produced for the Club of Rome by a team at
   • the IMF
   • the World Bank
   • the WTO
   • MIT, using a global computer model
   Show answer

   MIT, using a global computer model. An international team at MIT began the study in 1970.

4. Why does rising affluence increase pressure on resources even without population growth?
   • Wealthier people consume more meat, energy and goods
   • Affluence reduces farming technology
   • Rich people need less water
   • Affluence lowers energy demand
   Show answer

   Wealthier people consume more meat, energy and goods. Consumption per person rises.

5. Which is an example of technology easing water shortages?
   • Clearing forests
   • Building on floodplains
   • Desalination plants
   • Increasing meat consumption
   Show answer

   Desalination plants. Desalination produces fresh water from sea water.

6. Compare the views of Malthus and Boserup on population and food supply.
   Show answer

   Malthus was pessimistic: population grows faster than food so famine and disease check growth. Boserup was optimistic: population pressure leads to new technology and more intensive farming, so food supply increases.. Malthus: pessimistic checks; Boserup: optimistic innovation.

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Sources

• Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidiary/Advanced Level in Geography specification (Issue 3, September 2025)
• Club of Rome: The Limits to Growth (1972)
• Pearson principal examiner report, WGE01 Global Challenges, June 2025

Last updated 8 November 2026. Spotted a mistake? Tell us.