Animal research and ethics

Why use animals?

• Procedures can be done that would be impossible or unethical with humans (e.g. lesions, selective breeding, long-term control of diet and environment).
• Greater control of variables, so cause and effect can be shown.
• Fast breeding cycles allow development across generations to be studied.
• Evolutionary continuity: humans share many biological and learning processes with other animals.
• Animals do not show demand characteristics.

Can findings be generalised to humans?

• For: basic learning processes (classical and operant conditioning) appear in many species, and treatments such as systematic desensitisation and token economies came from animal research.
• Against: humans think, use language and have culture; their behaviour is influenced by beliefs and expectations, so rat or pigeon findings may not apply. Skinner's 'superstitious' pigeons may not explain human superstition.

The law: Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986

In the UK, research using living animals is regulated under the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 (ASPA), enforced by the Home Office (its Animals in Science Regulation Unit), which issues licences and audits establishments:

• an establishment licence for the place where research is done;
• a project licence for the programme of work;
• a personal licence for each person carrying out procedures.

Projects must apply the 3Rs and are assessed by weighing likely harm against likely benefit:

• Replacement: use alternatives (e.g. computer models) where possible.
• Reduction: use the fewest animals needed.
• Refinement: improve procedures and housing to minimise suffering.

The BPS also publishes guidelines for psychologists working with animals.

Ethical arguments

• Costs: pain, distress, deprivation (such as keeping pigeons hungry), confinement; some argue animals have rights that research violates.
• Benefits: knowledge and treatments for humans (and sometimes animals).
• A cost-benefit judgement asks whether the benefits justify the suffering, and whether the research is high quality and likely to be useful.

Worked example

A researcher wants to keep rats hungry so they will press a lever for food. Apply the 3Rs.

1. Replacement: could a computer simulation or human volunteers answer the question instead?
2. Reduction: use a power calculation or previous research to use the fewest rats needed.
3. Refinement: limit food deprivation to the minimum needed, provide good housing, and monitor welfare.

Answer: Replace if possible, reduce numbers, refine procedures to minimise suffering.

Check yourself

1. Which law regulates scientific procedures on animals in the UK?
   • Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986
   • Data Protection Act 1998
   • Mental Health Act 1983
   • Human Rights Act 1998
   Show answer

   Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986. ASPA 1986.

2. Which government department issues licences under the Act?
   • The Department for Education
   • The Treasury
   • The Home Office
   • The Foreign Office
   Show answer

   The Home Office. The Home Office regulates and licenses.

3. Using a computer simulation instead of live animals is an example of
   • replacement
   • reduction
   • refinement
   • reinforcement
   Show answer

   replacement. Replacing animals with alternatives.

4. Improving housing and reducing pain is an example of
   • replacement
   • reduction
   • generalisation
   • refinement
   Show answer

   refinement. Refining procedures to minimise suffering.

5. How many types of licence are required under ASPA (establishment, project and personal)?
   Show answer

   3 types. Establishment, project and personal licences.

6. Which is the strongest argument against generalising from Skinner's pigeons to human superstition?
   • Pigeons cannot be conditioned
   • Pigeons were not hungry
   • Animal research always uses large samples
   • Human superstitions involve beliefs and culture that pigeons lack
   Show answer

   Human superstitions involve beliefs and culture that pigeons lack. Human cognition and culture differ.

7. Explain one reason psychologists use animals in research into learning.
   Show answer

   Animals allow greater control over variables and procedures that would be unethical with humans, such as food deprivation, so cause and effect can be shown, and basic learning processes are similar across species.. Control, ethics or evolutionary continuity.

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Sources

• Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidiary/Advanced Level in Psychology specification, Issue 5 (February 2021)
• Pearson IAL Psychology component guide: WPS02 (Issue 2, November 2024)
• GOV.UK: Research and testing using animals, licences and compliance
• Edexcel iA Level Psychology revision site: Animal research

Last updated 8 November 2026. Spotted a mistake? Tell us.