WPS02 Biological Psychology, Learning Theories and Development

Lessons in WPS02

1. The CNS, neurons and synaptic transmission
   Neuron: dendrites in, axon out, terminal buttons release neurotransmitter. Synapse: release, cross the cleft, bind to receptors, excite or inhibit, then reuptak
2. Brain structure and aggression
   Low PFC activity weakens self-control; amygdala and limbic activity drive emotional reactions. Brain differences predispose to aggression rather than cause it.
3. Hormones and aggression
   Testosterone is linked to aggression, mainly when cortisol is low (dual-hormone hypothesis); low cortisol is linked to under-arousal and aggression. Most human
4. Genes and aggression: MAOA
   MAOA codes for an enzyme that breaks down serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline. MAOA-L is linked to aggression, mainly when provoked: genes and environment int
5. The circadian sleep-wake cycle: pacemakers and zeitgebers
   SCN (hypothalamus) is the master clock; it signals the pineal gland to release melatonin in darkness. Light and social cues are zeitgebers that entrain the cloc
6. Research into the circadian sleep-wake cycle
   Siffre: free-running cycle slightly over 24 hours without zeitgebers. Ralph: SCN transplant transfers a 20-hour cycle. DeCoursey: SCN loss is dangerous in the w
7. Infradian rhythms: the menstrual cycle
   Infradian: longer than 24 hours. Menstrual cycle about 28 days, controlled by FSH, oestrogen and progesterone, but pheromones from other women may change its ti
8. Seasonal affective disorder and its therapies
   SAD: winter depression linked to melatonin, serotonin and body clock delay. Light therapy (about 10,000 lux) works quickly; CBT has lower relapse; SSRIs raise s
9. Correlational research
   Correlation: two co-variables measured, not manipulated. Positive, negative or none; coefficient from -1 to +1. It never shows cause and effect.
10. Spearman's rank correlation test
    Spearman's: relationship + ordinal data. rs = 1 - 6Σd²/(N(N² - 1)). Significant if |rs| ≥ critical value. One-tailed for directional hypotheses.
11. Brain scanning: CAT, PET and fMRI
    CAT = X-rays, structure. PET = radioactive glucose tracer, function, invasive. fMRI = magnetic field and blood oxygen, function, non-invasive.
12. Twin studies
    MZ share 100% of genes, DZ about 50%. Greater MZ similarity suggests genes; MZ concordance below 100% shows environment. Watch the equal environments assumption
13. Descriptive statistics (List A)
    Mean (all data, skewed by outliers), median (middle), mode (most common). Range and SD show spread. Bar chart for categories, histogram for continuous data.
14. Classic study: Raine et al. (1997)
    Raine et al. (1997): 41 NGRI murderers vs 41 matched controls, PET with glucose tracer during a CPT. Less prefrontal, parietal and corpus callosum activity; lim
15. Contemporary study: Brendgen et al. (2005)
    Brendgen et al. (2005): 6-year-old Montreal twins rated by peers and teachers. Physical aggression mainly genetic (MZ correlation nearly double DZ); social aggr
16. Contemporary study (option): McDermott et al. (2008)
    McDermott et al.: 78 men, MAOA-H vs MAOA-L, hot sauce after 80% or 20% of earnings taken. MAOA-L more aggressive, especially under high provocation. Genes and e
17. Contemporary study (option): Hoefelmann et al. (2006)
    Hoefelmann et al.: Brazilian students aged 14 to 24, questionnaires 9 months apart. Poor sleep common (8 in 10 not enough); cross-sectional links not confirmed
18. Biological practical: a correlational study
    Correlational practical: operationalise two co-variables, state hypotheses, control and act ethically, then descriptive statistics, scatter diagram and Spearman
19. Classical conditioning
    UCS -> UCR; NS + UCS paired; CS -> CR. Extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalisation.
20. Classical conditioning: discrimination, phobias and evaluation
    Generalisation spreads the CR to similar stimuli; discrimination restricts it to the CS; extinction removes it; spontaneous recovery brings it back after a rest
21. Operant conditioning: reinforcement and punishment
    Reinforcement increases behaviour, punishment decreases it. Positive = add, negative = take away. Primary reinforcers meet biological needs; secondary ones are
22. Schedules of reinforcement and Skinner (1948)
    Continuous: quick learning, quick extinction. Partial schedules (FR, VR, FI, VI) resist extinction; VR is the most resistant. Skinner (1948): accidental reinfor
23. Social learning theory
    SLT: observe, identify, imitate. Vicarious reinforcement affects performance. Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation. Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961).
24. Freud's psychosexual stages and the unconscious
    Id (pleasure), ego (reality), superego (morality). Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital. Unresolved conflict leads to fixation. Oedipus complex resolved by ide
25. The object relations school
    Object relations: relationships, not drives. Objects and part-objects; splitting; projective identification. Paranoid-schizoid then depressive position. Therapy
26. Systematic desensitisation
    SD: relaxation training, anxiety hierarchy, gradual exposure. Works by counterconditioning and reciprocal inhibition. Strong for specific phobias (Capafons et a
27. Psychoanalysis as a treatment
    Psychoanalysis: make the unconscious conscious. Free association (watch for resistance), dream analysis (manifest vs latent), transference and counter-transfere
28. Observations
    Naturalistic or structured, participant or non-participant, overt or covert. Behavioural categories, coding sheets, tallying, event and time sampling. Check int
29. Content analysis
    Content analysis: sample material, define coding categories, tally, analyse numerically. Replicable and ethical, but categories are subjective and context is lo
30. Freud's use of the case study
    Case study: in-depth, qualitative, often longitudinal. Freud used free association, dream analysis and session notes. Little Hans data came mostly from his fath
31. Thematic analysis of qualitative data
    Thematic analysis: familiarise, code, find themes, review, name, report with quotes. Keeps meaning but is subjective; a second analyst helps.
32. The chi-squared test
    Chi-squared: nominal data, independent groups, difference or association. E = row x column / total; χ² = Σ(O - E)²/E; df = (r - 1)(c - 1). Significant if χ² ≥ c
33. Animal research and ethics
    Animals give control and allow procedures impossible with humans, but generalisation is limited. ASPA 1986: Home Office licences (establishment, project, person
34. Classic study: Watson and Rayner (1920)
    Watson and Rayner (1920): Little Albert, white rat (NS to CS) paired with a loud noise (UCS); 7 pairings produced fear (CR) that generalised to a rabbit, dog, f
35. Contemporary study: Capafons et al. (1998)
    Capafons et al. (1998): 41 fearful flyers, 20 SD vs 21 controls, 12 to 15 sessions. Treated group improved on most measures; only 10% did not improve; controls
36. Contemporary study (option): Prot et al. (2014)
    Prot et al. (2014): Study 1, 2,202 people in 7 countries, prosocial media linked to empathy and helping. Study 2, Singapore, 2 years, prosocial games predicted
37. Contemporary study (option): Bastian et al. (2011)
    Bastian et al.: Study 1 (106), Mortal Kombat vs tennis: violent play lowered self and opponent humanity. Study 2 (38), Call of Duty with a co-player: lowered se
38. Learning practical: observations with chi-squared and thematic analysis
    Learning practical: operationalised categories, coding sheet, tallying, sampling method, controls, ethics, observer bias; chi-squared for tallies and thematic a
39. WPS02 exam technique and evaluation
    96 marks in 2 hours: Sections A and B 34 each, Section C 28 (12 + 16). Discuss = no judgement; evaluate = judgement. Evaluate with validity, reliability, credib

Next exams for WPS02

• January 2027: Tue 12 Jan 2027, morning, 2h 00m
• Summer 2027: Thu 13 May 2027, morning, 2h 00m

From Pearson's final timetables. All exam dates. Always confirm your entries with your exams officer.