All subjects · Psychology · WPS02 Biological Psychology, Learning Theories and Development

Learning practical: observations with chi-squared and thematic analysis

Edexcel IAL Psychology · WPS02 Biological Psychology, Learning Theories and Development

You must carry out two observations (or one gathering both quantitative and qualitative data) on an aspect of learned behaviour, analysed with descriptive statistics, chi-squared and thematic analysis (spec 4.4.1). Suggested topics include age or sex differences in driving speed, and helpfulness or politeness in men and women.

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Design decisions

Hypothesis: e.g. 'there will be a difference in whether men and women hold a door open for the person behind them' (non-directional) and a null hypothesis.
Behavioural categories, operationalised: 'holds door: keeps hand on door until the next person takes it'.
Coding sheet for tallying; decide event or time sampling.
Type: e.g. naturalistic, covert, non-participant in a public place.
Controls: same location, time of day and observation length; two observers trained on the same categories.
Ethics (BPS 2009): only observe in public places where people would expect to be seen; no identifying records; no harm or interference.
Observer bias: clear categories, inter-observer reliability checks, observers unaware of the hypothesis if possible.

Analysis

Quantitative: tallies into a contingency table; percentages, modes and a bar chart; chi-squared (nominal data, independent groups) with df and critical value.
Qualitative: written notes on how people behaved (e.g. smiling, thanking, ignoring), analysed with thematic analysis: familiarise, code, find and name themes, support with examples.
Link findings to learning theories: politeness may be reinforced (operant) or learned from models (SLT).

Discussion and improvements

Strengths: real behaviour in a natural setting (ecological validity); covert observation avoids demand characteristics; two observers check reliability.
Weaknesses: judging sex or age by appearance may be inaccurate; no control over who walks past; observer bias in interpreting qualitative notes; cannot explain *why* differences occur.
Improvements must say how and why, e.g. 'observe at several locations and times to get a more varied sample, improving generalisability'.

Worked example

A door-holding observation records men: held 26, did not 14; women: held 17, did not 23. Carry out chi-squared (two-tailed, p ≤ .05).

Expected: 21.5, 18.5, 21.5, 18.5 (row x column / 80).
χ² = Σ(O - E)²/E = 4.07; df = 1.
Critical value = 3.84. 4.07 ≥ 3.84.

Answer: χ² = 4.07: significant, so reject the null hypothesis.

Key idea: Learning practical: operationalised categories, coding sheet, tallying, sampling method, controls, ethics, observer bias; chi-squared for tallies and thematic analysis for notes; evaluate and improve with reasons.

Check yourself

Observed: men held 26, did not 14; women held 17, did not 23. Calculate χ² to 2 decimal places.
Show answer
4.07. Expected 21.5, 18.5, 21.5, 18.5; χ² = 4.07.
What percentage of the 40 men held the door?
Show answer
65 %. 26 / 40 x 100 = 65%.
Why is chi-squared the right test for door-holding tallies of men and women?
- The data are ratings from the same people twice
- The hypothesis predicts a correlation
- The data are nominal frequencies from independent groups, testing a difference
- The data are interval reaction times
Show answer
The data are nominal frequencies from independent groups, testing a difference. Counts in categories, independent groups.
Which makes a covert observation more ethically acceptable?
- Filming people in their homes
- Observing only in public places where people expect to be seen
- Recording people's names and car numbers
- Following people to see where they go
Show answer
Observing only in public places where people expect to be seen. BPS guidance allows observation in public places without consent.
Which is qualitative data from a politeness observation?
- 28 men held the door
- 70% of men held the door
- χ² = 8.08
- A note that a woman smiled and said 'after you' while holding the door
Show answer
A note that a woman smiled and said 'after you' while holding the door. Qualitative data are descriptions in words.
Which improvement is best justified?
- Observe for longer
- Observe at several locations and times to get a more varied sample, so results generalise better
- Use more observers
- Try harder to be objective
Show answer
Observe at several locations and times to get a more varied sample, so results generalise better. It states the change and why it improves the study.
Explain how observer bias could be reduced in this practical.
Show answer
Use clearly operationalised behavioural categories, train two observers who record independently and compare their tallies for inter-observer reliability, and ideally use observers who do not know the hypothesis.. Clear categories plus independent observers.

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Last updated 8 November 2026. Spotted a mistake? Tell us.