Observations

Types of observation

Every observation can be described on several dimensions at once, such as a covert, non-participant, naturalistic observation.

Recording data

• Behavioural categories: operationalised behaviours to look for, e.g. aggression = hitting, kicking, pushing, shouting. Categories should not overlap.
• Coding sheet: a grid with categories so observers tally each time a behaviour occurs.
• Event sampling: record every occurrence of the target behaviour across the whole observation.
• Time sampling: record what is happening at set intervals (e.g. every 30 seconds).
• Quantitative data: tallies and frequencies. Qualitative data: detailed written descriptions of what happened.

Reliability and observer bias

• Observer bias: observers' expectations affect what they record. Reduce it with clear operationalised categories, training, and observers who do not know the hypothesis.
• Inter-observer reliability: two or more observers record the same behaviour separately; their tallies are compared (correlated). High agreement (often about 80% or more) means the categories are reliable.

Evaluation of observations

• Strengths: records actual behaviour rather than what people say they do; naturalistic observations have high ecological validity.
• Weaknesses: cannot show why behaviour happens or cause and effect; observer bias; ethical issues with covert observation in private places; time-consuming.

Worked example

Two observers tally aggressive acts in a playground. Explain how to check inter-observer reliability.

1. Both observers use the same behavioural categories and coding sheet.
2. They observe the same children at the same time but record independently.
3. Their tallies are compared (correlated); strong agreement shows the observation is reliable.

Answer: Observe separately with the same categories, then compare tallies for agreement.

Check yourself

1. Researchers secretly watch shoppers through a café window. This observation is
   • covert and non-participant
   • overt and participant
   • structured and overt
   • covert and participant
   Show answer

   covert and non-participant. Shoppers do not know, and researchers are not part of the group.

2. Recording every time a child shares a toy during an hour uses
   • time sampling
   • content analysis
   • event sampling
   • a case study
   Show answer

   event sampling. Every occurrence of the event is recorded.

3. Recording what a target child is doing every 30 seconds uses
   • time sampling
   • event sampling
   • thematic analysis
   • free association
   Show answer

   time sampling. Recording at set intervals.

4. Which is the best behavioural category for aggression?
   • Being nasty
   • Bad behaviour
   • Feeling angry
   • Pushes another child with hands
   Show answer

   Pushes another child with hands. It is observable and operationalised.

5. Which type of observation usually has the highest ecological validity?
   • Structured laboratory
   • Naturalistic
   • Overt structured
   • Brain scan
   Show answer

   Naturalistic. Behaviour happens in its normal setting.

6. Which step best reduces observer bias?
   • Using only one observer
   • Letting observers choose categories as they go
   • Telling participants the aim
   • Using observers who do not know the hypothesis
   Show answer

   Using observers who do not know the hypothesis. Blind observers' expectations cannot shape their tallies.

7. Explain why inter-observer reliability is important in an observation.
   Show answer

   If two observers record the same behaviour independently and their tallies agree, the behavioural categories are clear and the data are consistent rather than due to one observer's bias, so the findings are reliable.. Agreement between observers.

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Sources

• Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidiary/Advanced Level in Psychology specification, Issue 5 (February 2021)
• Pearson IAL Psychology component guide: WPS02 (Issue 2, November 2024)
• Simply Psychology: Observation methods
• Edexcel iA Level Psychology revision site: Observations

Last updated 8 November 2026. Spotted a mistake? Tell us.