Social learning theory

Observation, imitation and modelling

• Observation: watching a model's behaviour.
• Modelling: the model demonstrates the behaviour (live, or symbolic such as on TV, in games or online).
• Imitation: copying the observed behaviour.
• Identification: wanting to be like the model. We are more likely to imitate models who are similar to us (age, gender), have high status, or are rewarded.

Vicarious reinforcement

Vicarious reinforcement is learning from the consequences that others receive. If we see a model rewarded, we are more likely to imitate; if we see the model punished, less likely.

Bandura (1965) found children who saw a model punished showed less aggression, but when offered incentives they showed they had learned it just as well. Reinforcement affects whether behaviour is performed, not whether it is learned.

The four mediational processes

Cognitive steps between seeing and copying:

1. Attention: the observer must notice the behaviour.

2. Retention: the behaviour must be remembered.

3. Reproduction: the observer must be physically and mentally able to perform it.

4. Motivation: the observer must want to perform it (expected rewards outweigh costs).

In Bandura et al.'s (1961) Bobo doll study, 72 children aged 3 to 6 who watched an aggressive adult model copied physical and verbal aggression towards the doll; children who saw a non-aggressive model or no model showed much less.

Evaluation

• Strength: explains learning without direct reinforcement, and includes cognition, so it is less reductionist than conditioning.
• Strength: applications, such as concerns about media violence and using positive role models; supported by research on prosocial and violent media (Prot et al., 2014; Bastian et al., 2011).
• Weakness: much evidence comes from lab studies with artificial tasks (hitting a doll), lowering ecological validity.
• Weakness: underplays biological factors such as hormones and genes in aggression.
• Weakness: ethical concerns about teaching children aggression.

Worked example

A 14-year-old starts vaping after seeing a popular older cousin do it at parties. Explain this using social learning theory.

1. The cousin is a model with high status whom the teenager identifies with.
2. Attention: the teenager noticed the vaping; retention: remembered it; reproduction: is able to do it.
3. Motivation: the cousin seemed admired at parties (vicarious reinforcement), so the teenager imitates.

Answer: Observation of a high-status model, the four mediational processes and vicarious reinforcement explain the imitation.

Check yourself

1. A boy sees his brother praised for helping and then helps too. This is
   • positive punishment
   • vicarious reinforcement
   • classical conditioning
   • spontaneous recovery
   Show answer

   vicarious reinforcement. He learns from the consequences his brother receives.

2. What is the correct order of the mediational processes?
   • Motivation, attention, reproduction, retention
   • Retention, attention, motivation, reproduction
   • Reproduction, retention, attention, motivation
   • Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation
   Show answer

   Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation. Notice, remember, be able, want to.

3. A child watches a gymnast but cannot do a backflip. Which process fails?
   • Attention
   • Reproduction
   • Retention
   • Identification
   Show answer

   Reproduction. The child lacks the physical ability to reproduce it.

4. Which model is a child most likely to imitate?
   • A stranger who is punished
   • An animal in a cage
   • A same-sex, high-status model who is rewarded
   • A model the child never notices
   Show answer

   A same-sex, high-status model who is rewarded. Similarity, status and reward increase imitation.

5. How many children took part in Bandura et al.'s (1961) Bobo doll study?
   Show answer

   72 children. 72 children aged 3 to 6.

6. What did Bandura (1965) show about reinforcement?
   • It is needed for any learning
   • It has no effect on behaviour
   • It affects whether learned behaviour is performed, rather than whether it is learned
   • It only works with animals
   Show answer

   It affects whether learned behaviour is performed, rather than whether it is learned. Children who saw the model punished could still reproduce the behaviour when offered incentives.

7. Explain the role of motivation in social learning theory.
   Show answer

   Even if a behaviour has been noticed and remembered, the observer will only reproduce it if they are motivated, for example because they expect rewards or saw the model being rewarded (vicarious reinforcement).. Motivation decides whether learned behaviour is performed.

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Sources

• Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidiary/Advanced Level in Psychology specification, Issue 5 (February 2021)
• Pearson IAL Psychology component guide: WPS02 (Issue 2, November 2024)
• Simply Psychology: Albert Bandura's social learning theory

Last updated 8 November 2026. Spotted a mistake? Tell us.